Ethical and Professional Issues in Psychology Essay Example

Ethical and Professional Issues in Psychology Essay Example Ethical and Professional Issues in Psychology Essay Ethical and Professional Issues in Psychology Essay Taking a critical view of the qualifications required for administering psychotherapy: shedding light on why the yoga practice and Eastern philosophies are not considered therapies whereas humanism and positive psychology are accredited. Ethical and Professional Issues in Psychology 2/1 1/2014 Clatter-Suzanne sore (561993 (M)) Selene vela (390593 (M)) Emilie coupled (68225 (A)) Introduction Academically, an individual becomes a psychologist after completing a first degree in psychology, a masters program in a specific psychological field, and a further program set to acquire a work warranty as a professional. Furthermore, to be a psychologist, one must encompass 5 cardinal values (PAP, 2010). These values are beneficence and malefaction, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, Justice, respect for peoples rights and dignity (PAP, 2010). Once a psychologist adheres to the aforementioned academic achievements and ethical codes, they are authorized to engage in psychotherapeutic practice. The main focus of this paper will be to analyses the principle of humanism and positive psychology In relation to unaccredited Eastern philosophies and the yoga practice that have synonymous benefits to psychotherapy, but are delivered by different professionals/non-professionals. Initially the focus will be on humanistic psychology and positive psychology, followed by specific values of the humanistic theory in relation to the practice of psychotherapy. This will be followed by an analytic view point of mindfulness based therapies. In addition we will attempt to delve into aspects of how one can quantify the emotional benefit derived from the aforementioned practices, the scientific benefits of the yoga practice, and finally, consider the use of intuition in clinical practice and Eastern philosophy. Humanistic Psychology and Positive Psychology The main objective of humanistic psychology is to aid individuals in achieving the potential within the individual that is present at birth. This highlights and alms to develop dignity and self-worth of each individual, and thus promotes their authenticity (Ragman, 2008). In therapy It Is the clients perception that Is emphasized so that the therapist can fully conceptualize the clients subjective experience of their current Internal state (Corey, 2013). Furthermore, the psychologist that allows self-exploration even after the required therapy sessions have been employed (Corey, 2013). In the same way, positive psychology is a model which highlights the value of being hopeful, spiritual, wise, responsible and resilient in everyday life (Cone Teen, 2010). Positive psychology focuses on the adaptive, creative and intrinsic motivation in the lives of individuals. It is specified to address the optimal functioning of ordinary people and their everyday lives, highlighting their positive attributes not only within themselves but also within the community (Sheldon King, 2001). One of the main shortcomings of such an approach is that the psychologist is required to possess a certain degree of maturity along with life experience, extensive training and comprehensive knowledge of existentialism (Corey, 2013). Thus, one might argue whether the academic achievements achieved through the psychologists previous training are enough to validate the psychotherapeutic methods they offer. In Mascots self-actualization theory he produces a schema that the humanistic biology that makes up an individual is good or neutral. In Mascots hierarchy of needs, this humanistic biology is seen to derive its energy from deficiency needs and growth needs (Rickrack, 2008). The hierarchy starts with a base level of physiological needs, moving on to safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs and finally self-actualization and growth needs. According to Mascots humanistic approach people who are self- actualities are problem-centered, are interested in taking on projects that benefit others and tend to feel a greater sense of personal accomplishment. The character of self-actualities people is generally non-critical, detached from the dominant culture but they adhere to societys rules. Self-actualities people are able to understand heir own shortcomings and are willing to seek assistance or guidance when their personal inventory of knowledge is limited (Rickrack, 2008). If humanistic psychologists view the essentially most developed aspect of an individual to be based on a foundation of six steps that need to be achieved before reaching their full potential, one would argue on how it is possible to have nothing and really have everything. Examples of such a postulation are characters such as Mother Theresa. Thus, adopting a critical perspective, one can argue whether it is actually possible to measure self-actualization. If it not possible to measure self-actualization, then how is humanistic psychology different to eastern philosophy in terms of statistical validity? In the spectrum of therapies used in humanism, mindfulness based therapy is one of the accredited psychotherapeutic domains for psychological intervention. Mindfulness is the concept of being aware of your own cognitive and affective state of mind. Mindfulness allows one to be totally in the present moment, without passing judgment, and maintaining an earnest attitude to their current state and mental processes (Burks Kabobs,2012). When considering mindfulness based psychotherapy, and eastern meditation, the main difference is that mindfulness based psychotherapy can be quantified using MASS and other scales. The MASS measures the amount of instances in which individuals enter a mindful state (Brown Ryan,2003). After mindfulness based psychotherapy, the MASS : Mindful Attention Awareness Scale reveals that this intervention is associated with lower expression of neurotics, anxious and depressive feelings as well as negative affectively. In fulfillment, dignity and self-actualization. Furthermore, it also corresponded to higher autonomy, competency and relatedness; all of which constitute the basic tenets underlying self-determination theory (Brown Ryan, 2003). In addition, mindfulness also corresponds to Openness to experience as explained in the Big Five. However, since openness to experience is in itself indefinable, the validity of mindfulness being a part of the spectrum is open to interpretation (Costa McCrae, 1992; as cited in Brown Ryan, 2003). This means that the essential difference between a psychotherapist initiating mindfulness based psychotherapy and a practitioner of Eastern philosophy initiating meditation is that a psychotherapist has the tools for identifying and interpreting the resulting outcomes of the therapy. Mindfulness- based cognitive therapy (AMBIT) is an intervention derived from Kebab-Zions (1990) 8 week group treatment program aimed at reducing stress, and involves components of cognitive behavioral therapy. The objective of this therapy is for the treatment of depression and to increase awareness of personal and negative thoughts. The therapist assigns specific tasks which enable the client to apply skills learned in the hereby room into the external environment (Corey, 2013). Another mindfulness based approach emphasizes acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) which focuses on increasing non-judgmental awareness and acceptance rather than attempting to alter the individuals cognitive state (Corey, 2013). Consequently, mindfulness highlights the importance of being in the present moment rather than formulating an ideology of self-judgment and criticism (Carson Longer, 2006). In light of this information, one may ask: how can we say that mindfulness based psychotherapy is better or different to meditation? Potential describes meditation as a mental saddens (practice) which leads one to a ashamed paranoia which means a transformation towards tranquility. Meditation is said to lead a person to a balanced state of mind, and to provide spiritual attainment through observation and reflection of oneself (lounger, 2002). An evident distinction in mindfulness based therapies and Buddhist meditation is that the cognitive states when entering the intervention are different and distinct, however the resulting post-meditative state results in the same cognitive mindful awareness (Carson Longer (1989); as cited in Carson Longer, 2006)). This means that both types of intervention are technically different but are essentially leading to the same, focused, therapeutic result. This raises questions as to why psychologists need to be accredited to initiate mindfulness based therapeutic interventions, whereas practitioners of Eastern philosophy are using similar interventions without being regulated. Scientific Evidence of the Benefits of Yoga Derived from Eastern philosophy, Yoga was perceived by Westerns as a path to self- realization. According to Potential, yoga is made up of action, self-discipline, self- duty, and surrender to the divine. The physical (practice) asana focuses on taps; the desire to remove impurities from the body, spirit, and mind. This practice over many years will bring intelligence, and a full, vibrant life (lounger, 2002). The maintenance of the yoga practice provides benefits such as changes in perspective, increased self-awareness, and a general sense of energize motivation to live a positive, fulfilling life (Woodward, 2011). More recently and with the basis of scientific inquiry, Yoga is believed to provide physical and mental health benefits. It has Kandahar Verbally, 2012). The yoga practices combats the physiological fight or flight response in the autonomic nervous system, and thus provides the individual with the tools for dealing effectively with stresses, in order to continue to explore a more balanced state of cognition (Woodward, 2011). The yoga practice has been found to improve psychophysiology in individuals, as well as improve memory, cognition, and general well-being in any individuals life (Albuquerque et al. 2012). It is interesting to note that the scientific evidence provides us with a new perspective on owe we can lead individuals to a state of overall well-being in their life. Thus, if yoga is a practice that can be practiced by anyone, in order to benefit their well-being, and psychology benefits the general well-being of individuals life, then one would ask how ethical it is that psychology is not readily offered to all people, and yet yoga studios and meditation centers are largely available and at only a fraction of the cost of psychotherapy. This being said, among the values of psychology and yoga, one notable distinction is that one who attends a psychotherapeutic session is protected y the law, and their confidentiality and anonymity is preserved throughout treatment. Other techniques derived from particular aspects of the yoga practice are loving-kindness meditation and compassion meditation. Loving-kindness meditation (ELK) is a clinical technique used to instill a sense of profound loving compassion in the client for all those that surround him/her throughout their life (Grossman, Hint Hofmann, 2011). Another technique used in line with ELK is compassion meditation (CM) which is meditation that centers on empathic feelings towards others who have been subject to misfortune in their lives. The result of the therapies together do not necessarily create a compassionate psyche, however, they present the individual with the tools to be curious of their own personal feelings, and cultivate compassion in moments of anger, thus preserving the individuals current state of peace, and not allowing external disturbances to affect the individuals state (Grossman, Hint Hofmann, 2011). This therapy, directly derived from Buddhist tradition allows an individual to cultivate feeling of gratitude and kindness towards oneself, and eventually understanding that these feelings are universal in all human nines, and thus the kindness and compassion is shared with others (Grossman, Hint Hofmann, 2011). Scientific evidence proves that the techniques of ELK and CM are effective interventions when clients are exposed to interpersonal issues, depression, anxiety, problems in their marriage, problems with anger management, and issues relating to the stresses of carving (Grossman, Hint Hofmann, 2011). Considering he physical and emotional benefits of the yoga practice in mind, a grey area arises within the construct of the ethical code for psychologists due to the act that not all psychologists may be informed of the benefits of this practice, and thus may not use these therapies to intervene when these therapies could be the most effective in the situation. This raises issues to whether a clinical practitioner can really be 100% ethical in their practice and choice of treatment. Intuition In clinics, professional psychologists are known to make use of intuitive processing of clinician uses this approach to direct therapeutic intervention and to form cognitions on the clients current situation. Intuition itself can be described as a process of ensign or attaining information from the external environment in order to make an informed decision or postulation about the internal current or future states that will develop within the client. Predisposing factors in the personality of the clinician will lead to a definite bias in the perception of pattern of observed behavior or cognition in clients, which leads to an intuitive Judgment (Welling, 2005). The four main phases of intuitive processing are detection phase (inception of a feeling) (Erik, 1948; as cited in Welling, 2005), dichotomy awareness phase (awareness of feeling), related object hash (cognitive postulation with an unclear emotional state) and metaphorical solution phase (concrete evaluation of emotional processing). When one analyses the intuitive processing that occurs within psychologists one can conclude that the manner in which an intuitive Judgment is formed cannot be quantified and thus cannot be scientifically proven. This lack of empirical evidence raises ethical concerns about whether a clinical psychologist is any better to a practitioner of Eastern philosophy who uses intuition based techniques throughout their practice. This Ewing said, clinicians need to be aware of any ethical dilemmas that may occur within client interactions in order to protect the well-being of their clients. A main issue of concern is that wrong intuitive Judgment can lead to unnecessary treatment processes. Conclusion When one looks at the many different psychological therapies that are based on derivatives of eastern philosophy, one is subject to question how we can devastate eastern philosophy as something that is not scientific and does not feature in a psychotherapeutic setting. It is interesting to note that from such an analytic view mint, it becomes increasingly aware of the possibility of viewing both psychology and eastern philosophy from scientific and unscientific, unaccredited stand points. This postulating raises significant dilemmas in the practice of psychology, as the practitioner needs to always keep informed and analyses their actions carefully in order to conform to ethical codes of conduct and not range into the unscientific aspects of psychology. Essentially, we can conclude that the use of psychotherapeutic methods and their benefits can be perceived and adapted to different cultures, and ore importantly, to individual needs. Thus, it is the prerogative of a qualified psychologist to integrate their academic knowledge, comply with ethical codes, and apply the most effective therapies for the context and always keep the clients best interest as the foundation for the therapeutic process.

IMO Ballast Water Exchange and Performance Standards

IMO Ballast Water Exchange and Performance Standards In order to reduce damage from aquatic invasive species the International Maritime Organization (IMO) developed the â€Å"International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments†. The BWM convention began with the IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) in 1991. Since then there have been many revisions. Some of these revisions were driven by advancing technology to remove unwanted organisms at flow rates that would not severely impact operations. Treatment of ballast water with the latest technology can meet standards at a rate of 2500 cubic meters (660,430 US Gallons) per hour. A large vessel may still take several hours per exchange to flush her ballast tanks at this rate. Flow rates and energy consumption must be acceptable to operators while producing no harmful effects on the environment. Ballast Water Standards There are two types of ballast water standards in the convention. Their differences are significant and they should not be directly compared. The first, Ballast Water Exchange, is based on specified distances and depths where a vessel may discharge. Ballast Water Performance is a standard based on the number of viable organisms allowed per unit of treated water. Some areas are instituting standards which exceed the IMO guidelines. Both California and the Great Lakes region of the United States have adopted stringent local guidelines. The US is one of many major shipping nations that have not signed the convention. Thirty nations who have a combined merchant gross tonnage of thirty-five percent of the global tonnage are needed to ratify the convention. Ballast Water Exchange The standard for ballast water exchange is fairly simple. A vessel must discharge foreign ballasts at a specified distance from shore and at a specified depth using a submerged discharge device. Regulation B-4 and D-1 of the BWM convention gives us the specifics. Exchange may take place 200 Nautical Miles (NM) from shore at a depth of 200 meters. If that is not possible for safety or other reasons then a vessel may use the next procedure.If neither of these scenarios is possible then a vessel may exchange â€Å"in an area designated by the port state†. While undertaking ballast water exchange a port state must not cause deviation or delay of a ship.Efficiency of exchange should be at least 95% of volume and must be repeated three times. Vessels which demonstrate high-efficiency exchanges may reduce the number of exchange cycles.Ballast Water Exchange should only be undertaken when the safety of the vessel and crew are guaranteed. Ballast Water Performance In the case of Ballast Water Exchange, ship operators are flushing untreated ballast out of the tanks. This is a practical if not perfect way of allowing older vessels to operate without the expense and logistical problems of ballast water treatment retrofits. New and retrofitted vessels are much less likely to transport unwanted species because the ballast water treatment systems eliminate a large proportion of the viable organisms from the ballast tanks before discharge. Systems like these significantly reduce the chances of unwanted species being introduced by inefficient exchange practices or in the event of an untreated near shore discharge for safety reasons. The IMO uses the following guidelines for the Ballast Water Exchange standard in regulation D-2. Ballast water must contain less than 10 viable organisms which are greater than or equal to 50 microns in size per cubic meter (264 US Gallons). For reference, 50 microns is about half the thickness of an average human hair.In addition, ballast water must contain less than 10 viable organisms that are less than 50 microns but greater than or equal to 10 microns per milliliter (1/1000th of a liter).Indicator Microbes may not exceed the following amounts; Vibrio Cholerae - less than 1 CFU (colony forming unit) per 100 Ml, E. Coli – less than 250 CFU per 100Ml, Enterococci – less than 100 CFU per 100Ml. Water treated to this standard is considered pure enough to discharge in most ports. These steps to re-mediate ballast water are only effective in the removal of unwanted organisms. It is still possible to carry toxins like copper and heavy metals often found in ports to other destinations in ballast water and these pollutants may concentrate in ballast tank sediment. Radioactive substances can also be transported in ballast but any serious cases would likely be found quickly by monitoring personnel.

Literature, Intertextuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Literature, Intertextuality - Essay Example These results not only in what Roland Barthes calls as the "Death of the Author", but also makes the issue of authorship debatable. According to Barthes, the text [is] woven entirely with citations, references, echoes, cultural languages . . . which cut across it through and through in a vast stereophony. . . The citations which go to make up a text are anonymous, untraceable, and yet already read 1(Barthes 194-5) If intertextuality is a problematization of the inside-outside ratio of the text and context game, a classic example would be John Barth's Dunyazadiad. The text not only explicitly refers to the original work of The 1001 Nights, which is historically seen as an act of unoriginality, of plagiarism, but manages to create something original out of the reference. In the story, when Scheherazade and the genie (John Barth) are discussing the ending of the story the reader is currently reading, her epiphany illustrates one of the central ideas behind Barth's reworking: "Sherry asked with a smile whether by 'his version' the Genie meant that copy of the Nights from which he'd been assisting us or the story he himself was in the midst of inventing." The fact that Barth consciously subverts the original reference and recasts Dunyazade, the younger sister of the doomed Queen Scheherazade, the original protagonist of the Arabic tale, as the main stay of his text, shows Barth not only toying with the idea of form (as represented by the canon of Queen Scheherazade), but also illustrates the idea of post modern fiction to venture into the realms of 'might have been's' rather than following the filiated history. The greatest triumph of Barth lies in breaking this discourse of filiation, of canonization, by producing a pastiche of the probable. The intertextuality in the text thus, capillarizes the power lying inherently with the omniscient author of The 1001 Nights. If intertextuality celebrates the concept of art imitating art, it is true that Barth's text is a pluralistic discourse. However, the question of whether the text owes more to other texts than itself becomes difficult to analyze simply because the meta-narratives which evolve from Dunyazadiad are themselves a part of the world of intertextuality. The recursive tale structure is a treasure-house of narratives, but is at the same time confounding as it is held in the semiotics of language whose meaning can neither be ascertained nor be fully comprehended. Thus, "I can't conclude it," the narrator admits at the end of "Dunyazadiad," "but it must end in the night that all good mornings come to." The function of intertextuality in Alejo Carpentier's Like the Night has a function which is similar and at the same time dissimilar to Barth's Dunyazadiad. Whereas the similarity is evident in both the text's ability to challenge and break the canon of filiality, the difference becomes one in degree. Alejo's text, one could argue is a conscious effort to defer the issue of authorship at such an ad infinitum pace that its elasticity could combine the aesthetic concerns of multi-cultural traditions and focus on broader social issues regarding cultural identity. A typical example would be the use

Discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 75

Discussion - Assignment Example . This poem clearly brings out the theme of courage well. Unlike his peers who strive to impress the visiting audience, Michael chooses to do what he perceives right in his eyes even though he knows the backlash he would receive from the society. Since beginning of time, those who act contrary to the norms of the society are the ones who make a difference on earth. Like a child, he is at peace with what he does and loves. Like a rose has both the male and female parts, he blends both masculinity and feminism. Cultural conflict is the dominant theme in this poem. Different races and cultures are always in conflict with each other and in a bid to advance their ideologies or to prove their superiority over others; most conflicts end up in bloodsheds. In Casual Wear, a tourist woman falls victim to a vicious attack by the terrorist. While the odds are one to nine that she will be at the place of the attack, she ironically ends up there and is killed. The tourist may have come from a nation that was in conflict with the terrorist’s country. She wears extravagantly in a country that fashion is not taken seriously. Just like her clothes did not matter to the terrorist, so was her life. The main cause of terrorism is cultural differences. Using force or violence to counter terrorism will only result to more violence. The best method to stop terrorism would be to accept other people’s cultural, ideological and religious beliefs. Stereotyping people will only lead to more resentment. For example, Muslims are portrayed as terrorists in most Hollywood films. This should be banned. Ballad of Birmingham is based on a real life bombing of an African-American church in 1963. The poem begins with a girl begging her mother to go to a freedom march, but her mother refuses. She however allows her to go to church where she believes is secure. Unfortunately, the church is attacked by arsons and the little girl dies. The message that is clear is

Routing and Switching Selection Criteria Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Routing and Switching Selection Criteria - Essay Example The needs memory of distance vector are low and its updating is done only on broadcast not on multicast and its HOP is limited and coverage time is quite slow and does not have any hierarchical structure. There are not many limitations of link state protocol however it may scale a distance which is much greater than the distance vector protocol and its function are more like a CPU. EIGRP may have short coverage times and it easily adapts to the changes that occur. Therefore it may be considered as the best suited method for designing new protocol for LAN architecture. The physical topology may also be considered as an important factor for determining the protocol. EIGRP is the Cisco propriety protocol and therefore it restricts the selection of the vendors. EIGRP can be used in the campus core and in some of the routing protocols in order to overcome this restriction (Routing Protocol Deployment,

To Eat or Not To Eat Essay Example for Free

To Eat or Not To Eat Essay Hello, my name is Dr. Rachel Green. I am an eating disorder counseling specialist. Today I would like to talk with you about two forms of eating disorders, obesity and anorexia nervosa. In our discussion, I would like to be able to give you a new perspective on food, hunger and satiety hoping that it may benefit those who live with these disorders. Obesity is defined as when a person has maintained a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher. People with obesity have many health risks which include hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, bone health problems in addition to many other health complications and illnesses. Anorexia nervosa is defined as a mental illness because it refers to individuals who refuse to keep their weight within 85% of the standard weight for their age and height. Those who live with anorexia express deep anxiety about gaining any weight in addition to their body image being dramatically distorted. These individuals refuse to eat and have a habit of going on eating binges, which they follow with vomiting. Their excuse for this is that they have to do this to keep what they view as an acceptable weight. This illness is very severe and is life threatening in most cases. It can result in heart failure, kidney failure and damage to the brain. Both anorexia and obesity are studied in depth. Several new theories have brought new light to the treatment of these conditions. We will also discuss numerous hunger and satiety myths as well as facts about  the maintenance and development of these disorders. We will have a chance for QA in the later part of the program. There are a wide variety of theories that attempt to address why we choose to eat or not to eat. Hunger and satiety have bio-psychosocial factors that are detailed in theories relating to obesity and anorexia. From an evolutionary perspective, we can see that periods occurred in which shortages existed in our food supplies. These may have contributed to obesity as a part of our genetic predispositions as a means of storing food when it became available so that those calories would be available to us later for our use when food supplies became scarce. This relates also to the desire to eat great quantities of high calorie foods. Consumption of high calorie foods leads to fat storage of that food’s energy. We also know that we require at least 3 solid meals daily to maintain our normal weight. This social connection to normality can be carried forward into social interactions that take place when consuming foods that are more palatable due to high fat content or high sugar content. This carries forward into our understanding of the motivations for eating. Such factors do influence our eating patterns. Additional factors play into the choices that we make that may conflict with our ability to maintain a healthy and ideal body weight. Calories are burned during exercise and if we do not balance our caloric intake well with our exercise levels then we will not be in balance. People also have different rates of metabolism, which affects their ability to burn or store fat. Thermogenesis, which is a non-exercise activity where energy is dissipated, is also relevant to this discussion. Studies in Biopsychology have shown that we do not eat due to the need to fuel the body, but eat because of our learned, embedded responses. Studies show that people tend to eat larger quantities in social settings than when alone. This factor alone would be a significant contributor to obesity if we correlate socializing with food. Satiety has shown to be related to the types of food we eat. We need certain nutrients and minerals. Candy doesn’t include these nutrients and minerals, and so our bodies do not feel satisfied or full when we eat them. Meals that contain the proper mix of nutrients and minerals yield a more complete satiety. Some foods contain more of the nutrients required to allow us to actually feel full. Anorexia includes some of the same issues of social factors that influence our views of acceptable healthy weight and eating. The inclination to eat in social situations can be skewed in the opposite direction for some individuals. They can be so insecure that they do not meet their body’s needs due to their feelings about others’ perceptions of them. Anorexia involves a great fear of weight gain and the individual displays starvation habits of eating or alternate binge and purge cycles of eating. These patterns are learned eating behaviors. Binging is an aspect of anorexia that can help us to see how hunger and satiety are related to mind over matter because the mind is overtaking the body’s need for nutrition in this disease. The binge is meeting the body’s need, but the purge that follows is catering to the corrupted ideal as the individual sees it, so satiety no longer has a positive value. The start and development of anorexia is specific to the individual because external factors contribute to the development and beginning of this disease. The most common onset factor is dieting. Dieting is generally undertaken in response to socially perceived and abnormal expectations. There seems to be a connection between weight gain and food intake that defies the positive motivation that is normally connected to satiety and healthy eating habits. The value of the food incentive is lost in the negative contribution of feelings for weight control. In this discussion today we have reviewed a number of myths and facts relating to these two diseases. What questions do you have about anorexia or obesity? Question 1: I want to know if my parents’ obesity is the cause of  my own obesity. Answer: Your parents’ obesity may have given you a genetic predisposition that affects your ability to maintain an ideal weight but isn’t the only factor. The Bio-psychosocial theory gives us the evidence to understand that you have the willpower to control your own weight in a healthy manner. You can learn to rehabilitate yourself with regard to your expectations and eating behaviors. This will give you greater satiety and a healthier prognosis. Exercise is also a critical factor in controlling your weight. A proper, regular practice can help you to burn calories. The combination of proper intake and proper exercise can give you a healthy weight. Overeating is not the response to need, but is a continuance of values and habits about food that are not healthy. Question 2: I eat the same foods and amounts as my girlfriend, but she does not gain weight and I do. What makes this happen? Answer: This would be because her basal metabolism and differs from yours significantly. She has a higher rate allowing her to digest foods more efficiently.Consumption is not the only factor in weight gain. You have to look at your own physical activity/exercise levels as well. Question 3: My family feels that I have become anorexic in response to my exposure to women’s images as portrayed in magazines and on TV. This may be true, but I do not have any cravings for food. Why would that be so? Answer: It may be true that you initially learned to connect extreme thinness with success and beauty and you chose to work toward that slanted ideal. Your dieting then contributed to this skewed viewpoint when you were able to lose weight in the beginning of your new eating patterns. You may have found yourself more beautiful due to the exposure to such idealized images and then failed to recognize later the health problems that this began to cause for you. I would attribute the feeling that you do not crave food at all to the negative value this skewed view placed on food. You look at food as a negative element in your life since you connect it only with weight gain instead of with nurture and health. Rehabilitation of your mind and body require you to nurture your body with healthy foods and exercise. It is possible to re-establish healthy eating patterns that can give you back your desire for and enjoyment of food. Question 4: I feel sick each time I eat, so I have taken to not eating. Can you tell me why this is? Answer: I believe this relates to incentive values of food. You may have taught yourself that food will make you gain an unhealthy amount of weight and now you connect food only with negative things. If you begin by eating foods that you know are healthy for you then you can begin to view food as a positive thing again. Eating healthy foods and staying away from high sugar and high fat foods is a way to let your body respond well to what you eat. If your focus is on weight control rather than on health, you will be punishing your body for eating even healthy things. Citations Pinel, J. P. J. (2011). Biopsychology. (8th ed.). Allyn Bacon. To Eat Or Not To Eat. Anti Essays. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/95995.html

OPV Cell Fabrication

OPV Cell Fabrication To fabricate the inverted OPV cells with the structure of ITO/ZnO/P3HT:PCBM/PEDOT:PSS/Ag, the ITO was first coated onto a glass substrate. The ITO coated glass substrate was then cleaned by ultra-sonication in detergent solution, deionized water, acetone and isopropanol sequentially for 10 minutes each. After that, the pre-cleaned and pre-patterned ITO substrate was exposed to a UV-ozone treatment for 10 more minutes. A solution of ZnO was prepared for spin coating onto the ITO coated glass substrate. To prepare the solution, 0.15g of ethanolamine (NH2CH2CH2OH) and 0.6g of zinc acetate dihydrate [Zn(CH3COO)2à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢2H2O] were dissolved in 5 mL of 2-methoxyethanol [CH3OCH2CH2OH] with continuous stirring for 24 hours. After that, 1mL of ammonia (NH3) was added to the solution and stirred for 2 more hours. To remove the inpurities, the solution would need to be filtered through a 0.25mm PVDF filter. With the technique of spin coating at 3500 rpm for 90 s, a ZnO film of about 40 nm would be coated onto the pre-cleaned ITO coated glass substrates. Mild washing would then be performed on the ZnO films with isopropyl alcohol and it was blown dry in air. In the next step, poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) are mixed in the proportion of 10 : 8. The mixture was then dissolved in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution and to be spin-coated to a thickness of approximately 200nm on the ZnO/ITO layer prepared. Annealing at 120 oC was then carried out to the film for 10 minutes. The hole transport layer of PEDOT:PSS was then spin-coated on the bulk layer of P3HT:PCBM from a commercial solution (Clevios) under the temperature of 120 oC for 10 minutes. In the last step, under a pressure of about 1 milliPascal, the silver electrode of a thickness about 100 nm was coated onto the PEDOT:PSS layer. The devices then needed to be annealed for 10 minutes at around 70 oC under a pressure of about 1 milliPascal. After that, the device was cooled down to room temperature. Using a source meter at AM1.5G illumination with a solar simulator, the photovoltaic characteristics of the cell were measured. The photocurrent measurements were done by using a source meter at AM1.5G illumination. This value of photocurrent was used to calibrate the illuminator for measurements later on. The area of the devices was 0.9 cm2. Intro of OPV, normal and inverted geometry In recent years, there has been great interest in organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) due to various advantages over the conventional silicon solar cells. Some of the prominent advantages include low cost of manufacturing, light cell weight, high power conversion efficiency reaching 10% 1 and being environmentally friendly. The structure of the photoactive layer in these organic photovoltaic cells is usually an amalgamation between a fullerene derivative as an electron acceptor and a p-conjugated polymer as an electron donor. Among different materials, poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) have attracted wide attention for being developed to bulk heterojunction [2]. This is because of their outstanding conductivity for both electrons and holes and good stability in atmospheric conditions [3]. Aside of these advantages, a major challenge in the study of OPV cells is to combine the high power conversion efficiency and operational stability. To tackle this problem, there are two device structure set forth, namely the conventional geometry and inverted geometry. For devices made according to the conventional geometry, as shown in Fig 1, the photoactive layer, which is usually a blend of the P3HT:PCBM, is lodged between two electrodes, such as an aluminum electrode and an indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode. Upon shining of light, the electrons and holes are photo-excited and then separated to be collected at the two electrodes. Electrons are gathered at the aluminum electrode and holes are collected at the ITO electrode. Devices with such geometry usually have relatively high power conversion efficiency. Nevertheless, the stability of such devices is compromised because these devices are easily affected by oxygen and humidity present in the atmosphere. This is due to the fact that the aluminum electrode has a low work function and it is much susceptible to oxidation [4]. Thus, the stability of devices made with the conventional geometry is restricted. However, the oxidation of aluminum electrode is not the only factor responsible for device degradation. Other factors such as: (1) charge carriers being accumulated at the interface between the photoactive layer and the electrode, (2) metal ions diffusing from the electrodes to the photoactive layer [5], (3) the photoactive layer being unstable and degrade in atmospheric conditions [6], (4) the morphology of the photoactive layer varies in the nanoscale [7]. One of the suggested ways to improve the stability of such OPV cells is to add a layer of encaps ulation to prevent the oxygen and moisture from entering the devices [8]. Nevertheless, the encapsulation cannot prevent the degradation reaction from happening within the OPV cells. Therefore, the intrinsic stability of devices needs to be improved. One achievable way is to use the inverted geometry with reversed charge collection. For OPV cells manufactured with the inverted geometry, as shown in Fig 2, the photoactive layer is middled between an electron transport layer (ETL) and a hole transport layer (HTL) which are in turn lodged between two electrodes, which are usually indium tin oxide electrode and a metal with high work function like silver. Upon photo excitation, the electrons generated will go through the ETL and be collected by the ITO electrode; the holes generated will go through the HTL and be gathered by the metal electrode [9]. The high work function of the metal electrode used makes the electrode unreactive to the oxygen and moisture present in the atmosphere, thus, a higher stability of the OPV cells can be maintained in a relatively long time period. However, the power conversion efficiency of OPV cells with inverted geometry is generally lower than those OPV cells made with conventional geometry [10]. Info on ZnO Several materials are commonly used for constructing ETL, some examples are ZnO, LiF[11], and Ca [12]. Currenly, ZnO is most recognized as a good material for ETL because of its high electron mobility, high photo-stability, low work function and optical transparency [10]. Study done by Krebs et al. [2] has shown that inverted OPV cells with ETL made of ZnO exhibit an extended lifetime. In their study, I–V measurements were performed under illuminated conditions in both presence and absence of UV light. Their results showed that there is increased recombination when the oxygen molecules are desorbed from the surface of ZnO layer due to the photoelectrons when the cell is in operation. In the night time when the cell is not in operation, oxygen molecules are adsorbed onto the ZnO layer again from the atmosphere, thus restoring the OPV cells’ performance. This cycle of desorption and re-adsorption of oxygen molecules causes the inflection point in the I-V measurement to di sappear first and re-appear later. Other than the factors affecting the OPV cells in operation, manufacturing factors exert equally significant influence on the performance of OPV cells. One of such factors is the trap state. In the band gap of ZnO which is a metal oxide semiconductor with nanostructure, there is presence of localized energy states, which are also called trap states. These trap states make the charge transport in ZnO to be different from the bulk material and they exert adverse effect to the charge transport in ZnO [13]. The amount of such trap states increase exponentially from the top of the valence band to the bottom of the conduction band. According to previous research, different amount of trap states can even be present in the band gap of materials which are chemically identical. The different amount of trap states is a result of difference in crystallinity which means the perfectness of the crystal. High electron diffusivity and mobility is usually associated with materials which have higher crystallinity [14]. The crystallinity can be varied by undergone ZnO film through annealing process in different temperature, different density of trap states can thus be achieved. The devices which undergo annealing in higher temperature will have lower depth of trap states, thus consequently exhibiting a better photo-conversion efficiency and greater operational stability. Annealing effect on ZnO, FF, Voc Isc info To further illustrate the effect of annealing on the crystallinity of ZnO layer and consequently the effect on the OPV performance, a study was done by N. K. Elumalai et al.[1] with two devices which have their ZnO thin films annealed at two different temperatures after the ZnO film is coated onto the ITO substrate. As shown in Fig. 3, the current–voltage measurement was done under the illuminated condition of 1 sun for both device A and device B. Device A had its ZnO film annealed at 240 oC, whereas device B had its ZnO film annealed at 160 oC. In the current–voltage measurement, the value of the current when the voltage is zero is called the short circuit current (Isc). In the significance of an OPV cell, Isc is the amount of current going through the cell when the cell is short circuited, which means the voltage across the cell is zero. Hence, the Isc is the maximum current which can be possibly drawn from the OPV cell. The light conversion ability of the OPV cell has a direct influence on the value of Isc. Hence, Isc is useful in characterizing the OPV cell performance. The value of the voltage at the point when the current is zero is called the open circuit voltage (Voc). Voc is the maximum voltage which can be possibly drawn from the OPV cell. In theory, the Voc is dependent either on the work function of the electrodes used or the energy difference between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the electron donor material and the lowest occupied molecular orbital (LOMO) of the electron acceptor material in the OPV cell, depending on whether the contact is non-ohmic or ohmic. With the current–voltage measurement, the fill factor (FF) can be determined. Fill factor is the ratio of maximum power to the product of Voc and Isc. By going through every point on the (I–V) measurement curve, there is such a point with the current (Imax) and voltage (Vmax) values that maximize the fill factor value according to equation, Hence, the fill factor is determined. In addition, the power conversion efficiency (PCE), can be found from the current–voltage measurement. PCE is the ratio of the energy output from the OPV cell to the solar energy the cell received from illumination source. The energy output from the OPV cell is defined as Pcell, the solar energy the cell received is defined as Psun. The PCE can be calculated from the equations shown below. With reference to Fig. 3, it is obviously that device A has a better performance since it shows a higher short circuit current density and a higher open circuit voltage than device B does. With some simple calculation, the fill factor and the power conversion efficiency of both device A and device B can be determined and summarized in Table. 1. From the Isc, Voc and PCE, it is obvious that the device A is superior that device B in terms of photovoltaic performance. Hence, it proved that annealing of ZnO film changes the crystallinity of the nanostructure, reduced trap states density and consequently lead to better photovoltaic performance. In layer ZnO, Voc vs. T in detail examine To examine the effect of trap states of ZnO in more details, the concept of trap depth should be introduced. The trap depth, represented by the symbol , is the depth of the distribution of the trap states in the band gap of ZnO layer. An equation relating the trap depth and Isc is employed [15], as shown below. From this equation, it is obvious that the trap depth is related to the short circuit current which in turn is a function of temperature and illumination intensity. The pre-exponential term Io in the equation summarized factors such as mobility and density of the photo-excited carriers. Researches have been done by N. K. Elumalai et al.[1] to find the effects of different temperature and illumination intensity on the Isc. By a semi-log plot, it is easy to find the trap depth at different condition of temperature and illumination intensity. For this study, it is evident that the trap depth of device A is much lower than device B. This is in line with the theoretical prediction which says that the annealing at higher temperature make the nanostructure have a more perfect crystallinity and thus less trap states distribution. The operational stability of these inverted organic solar cells is influenced by the trap depth and variation of the open circuit voltage. Hence, the effect of temperature and illumination intensity on Voc should be noted. There is on such equation proven to be useful as shown below In this equation, the recombination is assumed to be Langevin type, Eg signifies the effective band gap, which is the energy difference between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the electron donor material and the lowest occupied molecular orbital (LOMO) of the electron acceptor material; the effective density of trap states is represented by Nc; p and n represent the hole density and electron density respectively; e and kB have their usual meaning of elementary electron charge and the Boltzmann constant [16]. From the equation above, when the temperature decreases, the Voc will approach more closely to the effective band gap. Nevertheless, this is only true under the condition that the contacts in the device are all ohmic. When contacts are all ohmic, the barriers for charge carriers are low at the interface. However, in the case which contacts are non-ohmic, charge carriers will stuck and accumulate at the interface due to the higher barrier present. Hence, the Voc will be determined by the difference in the work function of the two electrodes. In Fig 5, the effect of temperature and illumination intensity on the Voc is illustrated. In Fig 5 (a), the ZnO layer in the device is annealed at a higher temperature, the Voc decreases almost linearly when the temperature increases for different illumination intensity. This observation can be explained by an increase in the phonon scattering in the photoactive layer and the ZnO interlayer when the temperature increases. In Fig 5 (b), Voc remains relatively constant when temperature is below 180 K for various illumination intensities, but the linear decrease of Voc is observed again when the temperature increases above 180 K; this may be due to the fact that the resistivity of the ZnO layer decreases at lower temperature. By comparing the two figures, the difference in shape can only be associated to the difference of crystallinity which is a result of annealing at different temperature. Hence, it can be suggested that the Voc is affected by the trap states at low temperature. To va lidate this proposition, the plot of Voc in Fig 5 (a) can be extrapolated to a temperature of 0 K, it will yield a value of 0.8 to 0.9 V. Comparing to the work function difference of the two electrodes which is around 0.7 V, this open circuit voltage is much higher, and it is indeed determined by the effective band gap.